#nigeria

besitodulce-deactivated20220227:

In case you have not heard many people from Ukraine are fleeing to Poland by train however Black people are being taken out of the trains and being told that refugee status is for Ukrainians, not Africans. The ones who have spoken out regarding their experience are literally students who are in Ukraine to attend university. Regardless of where they are from or why they are there, Ukraine is a war zone and understandably they want to leave. So far Nigerians who have gone to the embassy in Ukraine have been told not to panic, and have been given zero resources. I have not seen coverage of this yet and will link sources. (x,x) I will also link this video that shares more. What’s worse is that Nigerians are walking to the border after being unable to get on trains and being rejected by Poland at the border.

scripttorture:

‘National Style’ is a phrase Rejali coined to try and describe some of the patterns he saw in torture worldwide while he was researching his book.

It’s not so much a theory as an observation: particular countries and cultures seem to consistently favour particular torture techniques.

This doesn’t mean that torturers from these countries don’t use other techniques. It’s a general observation of the most common techniques and that which techniques are the most common varies between countries.

National Styles can change and unique tortures can still occur. What I’m hoping to do with this Masterpost is give an overview of the most common techniques in different countries.

This isn’t just for those of you setting your stories in a particular place. A lot of the sci-fi and fantasy asks I get are understandably vague about where exactly the story takes place. I’m hoping that a resource on National Styles will help you think about the cultures you’ve based your world on. Something set in the far future does not have to adhere to a particular National Style but it could serve as a useful starting point for thinking about the sorts of torture techniques that might exist in your world.

Just because I’ve excluded a country does not mean that the country is torture free. I don’t have adequate information on all countries to describe a National Style.

This is focused on the 1950s through to the present. I’m doing a separate post for World War 2 on the basis that when I tried to include it in the same post this was far too long. If I can find good sources in English for a variety of places in earlier time periods I’ll do some follow up posts on historical periods. Please keep in mind that there’s a trend towards non-scarring or ‘clean’ tortures currently, so most of these styles concentrate on techniques that rarely leave marks.

General Tortures that are common Worldwide

I’ve listed some of these in National Styles as well when I’ve felt it’s a particularly prominent feature of that country’s National Styles

-Beating

-Starvation

-Sleep deprivation

American Modern

American torture is incredibly similar to French. There isn’t any clear evidence about why exactly that is but one of the main theories is that Americans learnt at least some of these techniques during the Vietnam War. Previously, Vietnam was a French colony and there is considerable evidence that the French used these torture techniques there. Which doesn’t mean that is where the Americans got these techniques, just that it’s a possibility.

Electricity- Generally using Tasers or stun guns that are officially issued though in the past magnetos were also used. Police departments in particular experimented with many different uses of electricity in the early 1900s with many different accounts existing from that period.

Waterboarding- Waterboarding is a form of near-drowning torture that was first recorded as a torture used by the Dutch in the 1620s. It usually involves covering the mouth and nose with a cloth and restraining the victim so they are lying down with their feet above their head. Water is poured over the face and this stops the victim from breathing. Americans have been using this torture for decades.

Standing Stress Positions,with restraints- The favourite American stress position is ‘Standing cuffs’. A victim’s hands are cuffed and raised above their head until they’re standing on their toes. This also serves to deprive the victim of sleep. In some places victims were made to wear adult diapers as this was seen as especially humiliating.

Solitary Confinement- Rejali doesn’t include this as a feature of American torture and barely discusses solitary confinement at all. I’m including it on the basis that it is: so normalised in American prisons and military facilities, is used for punishment, causes intense pain, causes systematic mental and physical health problems and is allowed to continue for time periods that are frankly ludicrous.

French Modern

Electricity- French electrical torture strongly favoured use of magnetos for many years. With the technological shift away from magnetos it now seems to favour Tasers and stun guns like most modern countries.

Waterboarding- France’s history of waterboarding may be longer than America’s. There are records of waterboarding in French colonies and records of French Nazi sympathisers using waterboarding extensively during the Vichy government.

Crouching Stress Positions- Most of the stress positions I’m aware of that are particularly ‘French’ were strongly associated with the military and the French Foreign Legion. I am unsure whether they are still commonly in use today but they were 40 years ago and I’ve chosen to include them.

English Modern

The UK has very rarely used electrical torture and instead has relied on a variety of stress positions. This is unusual as most countries have regularly used electrical torture at some point even if it is no longer a feature of their National Style. It’s worth keeping in mind as a feature, should you ever have characters who experience or witness torture from different groups.

English torture has also been more varied in some respects. Torture in different colonies during the colonial period could vary dramatically, possibly a feature of the decentralisation of administration throughout the empire. Practices in Kenya were different to practices in Aden, Cyprus and Ireland. I’ve tried to focus on the overall similarities rather than list cases that only occurred in one particular place.

Positional torture without restraints- Accounts of English torture in Ireland usually contain a description of ‘Walling’. The victims were made to stand close to a wall, leaning forward. Their finger tips touched the wall but they were prevented from putting their weight against it. England has a long history of stress positions, especially in the military and a great many different positions have been used. English use of stress positions in the modern age seems to avoid restraints and instead rely on guards beating prisoners who don’t hold the stress position. Other standing stress positions apart from Walling have been used and the only common feature seems to be the lack of restraints.

Beating

Sleep deprivation- Methods of sleep deprivation were not consistent. Stress positions and sleep deprivation were often combined, but sleep deprivation was also inflicted by continually waking prisoners, use of noise and light or near-constant interrogation as in 'sweating’ or 'relay interrogation’ practices.

Exhaustion exercises- These are the practice of forcing someone to exercise until they collapse. Running, cleaning and aerobic exercises such as crouching then jumping repeatedly have all been used. Obstacle courses and forced crawling have also been used. While worthy of a place here I feel it should be noted that exhaustion exercises seem to be particularly associated with the English military and I’ve never seen an account involving the police. The exact form varies widely in English torture.

Temperature torture- This is usually done through exposure and seems to be slightly less common then the previous three methods but I felt it was worth including. Freezing showers and standing in extremely hot or cold rooms seem to be the 'usual’ methods.

English 'Five Techniques’

These were used in Ireland during the 'Troubles’ and I felt they were worth inclusion. They’re a seperate category because I haven’t found any evidence of them regularly being used in conjunction by the English or British elsewhere.

Standing stress positions

Hooding

Starvation and dehydration

Sleep deprivation

White Noise- This seems to have been uniquely used in Ireland. I’ve found no evidence of regular use elsewhere.

Russian Modern

I’m a little unsure of just how current my sources on Russia are. The following techniques were representative after the Cold War but may not all be currently in use.

Electricity- Russia like many countries that use electrical torture originally relied on magnetos but has since switched to more modern methods. I can’t find evidence for a preferred electrical source in Russia at the moment. The use of electricity is relatively recent, Soviet torture avoided electricity.

Dry choking- This was originally done using old fashioned gas masks. Manipulation of the air vent can be used to produce near-suffocation. Plastic bags are much more common now.

Beating

Suspension- Suspension by the wrists with the feet off the ground is a scarring torture that ruins hands and dislocates the shoulders. It causes permanent nerve damage on an average sized individual in around 15 minutes and acts more quickly when the victim is larger and heavier. Such practices are generally rare but this is still a common torture in Russian institutions. I am unclear on whether any sort of precautions are taken to avoid permanent damage to the victims or not.

 

Israeli Modern

Israel, like Britain, is notable for avoiding electrical torture. This is a relatively recent development with electrical torture and water based choking tortures being employed before the 1990s and not afterwards.

Positional torture using furniture- Use of child-sized furniture to deliberately cause discomfort in prisoners is, so far as I know, unique to Israel. An example would be making a victim sit in a child’s chair during a prolonged 'interrogation’. The size of the furniture makes it impossible for the victim to sit comfortably and has a similar effect to restraint torture, producing a prolonged discomfort but allowing enough movement to avoid the risk of kidney failure associated with stress positions. In some variants victims are shackled to child-sized chairs and this does seem to function as a stress position causing the tell-tale swelling in hands and feet.

Stress positions- Forced standing, including standing cuffs and forced squatting appear to be common.

Exhaustion exercises- I’ve seen reference to three specific forms of forced exercise which appear to have been in regular use since the 1980s. The first is making victims stand up and sit down repeatedly until they collapse from exhaustion. The second is the 'Bear Dance’, making victims run while holding a heavy object (sometimes a full bucket) in each hand. This exhaustion exercise is usually combined with a 'gauntlet’ of guards who hit or trip the victims as they run. The third was a sort of 'deep sit up’ performed on chairs while prisoners were handcuffed.

Hooding

Temperature torture- The Israeli style tends to use extremely hot or cold rooms rather than exposure to the elements.

Iran

Iran went through a period of using electrical torture but so far as I can tell after the 1990s it was no longer common. Electricity was used from at least the 1970s through to the 1990s.

I have not included punishments that are torture in the list but these include flogging, blinding and amputation.

Falaka- Beating the soles of the feet. This technique is common throughout the Middle East and North Africa. It has also been used historically in China. Different impliments cause different degrees of damage.

Beating

Stress Positions- My sources are unclear on what positions are favoured.

Turkish Modern

This basic combination of falaka and electricity is common throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa, though different countries add different techniques to this basic mixture. Israel and Iran stand out as distinct in the region.

Falaka

 

Stress positions- I don’t have any clear indication of which stress positions are common in Turkey currently

Electricity- As previously Turkey once used magnetos but has since switched to more modern implements such as Tasers and stun guns.

Indian and Pakistani Modern

I’ve chosen to put India and Pakistan in the same section due to the overwhelming similarities in their National Styles. This may be in part due to continued conflict between the two countries resulting in a constant exchange of torture techniques. As with the similarities between French and American Styles, there’s no proof this is the case, but it’s a possibility. 

Stress positions, murgha- The victim is made to bend forward, putting their head between their knees. They are sometimes made to hold their ears. This is extremely painful and in some cases can cause bleeding from the mouth, nose and anus.

Pepper-In India and Pakistan this means insertion of irritants and spices into the nostrils, anus or vagina.

Electricity-The instruments used to generate electricity in Indian torture have varied widely since the 1950s. Magnetos, live wires, the mains and more conventional Tasers and stun guns have all been used in different regions. Pakistan has generally favoured electrical prods.

Ghotna-This is distinct to India and Pakistan. A large pestel, like a huge stone rolling pin used to grind spices, is rolled over the victim’s thighs. Sometimes police officers stand on the ghotna.

Falaka-Slightly more common in Pakistan but also used throughout India, falaka is the practice of beating the soles of the feet.

Choking-More common in India than Pakistan, dry choking is near strangulation or near suffocation.

 

Chinese Modern

I’ve had some difficulty with this one. What I’m reading suggests that Chinese torture is either not consistent across the country (which would be understandable in such a large and varied country) or that Chinese torture is changing.The result is that this is a bit vague, may be edited later and some of these practices may not be current or used everywhere in China.

Restraint tortures- I’ve seen several accounts of political prisoners being kept in retraints long term (ie for days, weeks or in some cases months). The favoured device is a combination hand and leg cuff, with a chain connecting the hands, another connecting the feet and a longer chain linking them together. This keeps the victim hunched over in an extremely uncomfortable position but allows enough movement that they do not die of kidney failure (a difference from stress positions which allows the torture to continue for much longer)

Positional torture using furniture- These include devices such as 'tiger chairs’ which are essentially restraint devices victims are strapped into and left in for prolonged periods (over 24 hours). I am unclear on whether these could have the same effect as a stress position and suspect it depends strongly on the piece of furniture and how the victim is restrained. Chairs which strap down the victim’s arms, legs and chest seem to be the most common but boards which restrain victims so they’re laying downhave also been used.

Sleep deprivation

Restriction of circulation- I’ve mentioned the old Chinese practice of 'finger-milking’ on the blog before. I’m unsure if the current practice is finger-milking but it shares similarities. Currently the victim’s hands or feet are restrained and the cuffs are deliberately made too tight, cutting off circulation and causing painful swelling in the hands or feet. In finger-milking this is accompanied with attacks to the swollen hands or feet. This is not always the case today.

 

Japanese Modern

Beating-One thing that I’ve seen particular reference to in Japanese cases that I haven’t seen elsewhere is hair pulling. There also appears to be higher use of furniture to beat suspects then in other countries.

Crushing hands with flat objects- Placing a stuff, hard, flat object like a rulerover the back of the hand and applying pressure. This produces intense pain but rarely leaves any lasting marks.

South Africa

This is predominantly focused on the post-Apartheid period. During Apartheid scarring torture was much more common and in addition to the techniques I’ve listed falaka, whipping, and pumping (forcing liquid into the stomach until it flows out of most orifices causing intense internal pain) were all used. Targeted sexual violence was and remains extremely common.

Electricity- Prods and stun guns seem to be the implements of choice.

Dry Choking- This was previously done using gas masks but now seems to be done with some sort of hooding. Plastic bags now seem to be the most common method.

Stress Positions- Predominantly forced standing.

Nigeria

Unusually for a modern state most torture in Nigeria is scarring. This may be because there is more or less complete impunity for torturers and torture is often justified by people in positions of power, citing the unrest in the north. Targeted sexual violence against women, queer people and people perceived as either is common.

Scarring beating- Using batons, gun butts, machetes, sticks, rods or cables.

Shooting extremities- Such as the leg, feet and hands.

Extraction of nails and teeth with pliers

 

Suspension by the feet- Another scarring torture.

Electricity-Amnesty describes this as using ‘battery powered objects’.

Near-strangulation- Using a rope around the neck.

Being forced to sit of lie on sharp objects- Broken glass appears to be a favourite.

Stress positions using implements- The ‘Parrot’s perch’ and a position called ‘Tabay’ are both used. The parrot’s perch has the victim’s hands tied together and their feet tied together. Their limbs are bent and a stick is inserted under the knees and over the elbows. They’re then lifted by the stick, exposing the buttocks and leaving them dangling upside down. In ‘Tabay’ the victim’s elbows are tied together and the arms are raised using a stick.

Sources:

Torture and Democracy by D Reajli, Princeton, 2009

Amnesty International Report on Torture 2016-2017

Amnesty International Report on Torture in China 2015

Amnesty International Report on Torture in Nigeria 2014

Amnesty International: The aftermath of the failed Turkey coup, 2016

Cruel Britannia: A secret History of Torture by I Cobain,

Disclaimer

Gelede mask of the Yoruba people, Nigeria. Now in the Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.